Some languages simply combine numeral + object:
: three beer

The problem with this is that it makes it impossible to use numbers in compounds, e.g.:
: three month

Does this mean ''three months'' or ''March''?

On balance, I think being able to use numbers in compounds is more important than being able to use numbers without connectors.

So we need to say something like:
: three GEN beer
: beer ADJ three

(I'm really not sure what the head and dependent are meant to be here. It requires some thought.)

Then there's the case of using counters, like ''three bottles of beer''. I guess the following could work:
: three bottle GEN beer

Grammatically speaking, it means that ''three bottle'' is a compound. This isn't a problem if the counters are well-defined, but how would you say ''a three-month holiday''?
: three month GEN holiday
: holiday ADJ three month
: holiday ADJ three GEN month
It's getting confusing, to be honest. The first one could mean "March of holiday" (which is nonsensical, but not necessarily to beginning learners), the second one could definitely mean "the March holiday", and the last one could potentially be read as "the month's third holiday".

We need a structure that always works, so perhaps we need a new particle so that we can say:
: three CNT beer
: three bottle CNT beer (''or'' three CNT bottle CNT beer?)
: holiday ADJ three CNT month

It's still a bit confusing.

== ChatGPT ==

I got ChatGPT to have a look:

I'll translate "three bottles of beer" into the specified languages, providing a gloss for each translation to show word order and any linking morphemes.

Mandarin Chinese: 三瓶啤酒 (sān píng píjiǔ)

*三 (sān) = three
*瓶 (píng) = bottle (measure word)
*啤酒 (píjiǔ) = beer
*Gloss: "Three bottle beer"
Hindi: तीन बोतल बीयर (tīn botal bīyar)

*तीन (tīn) = three
*बोतल (botal) = bottle
*बीयर (bīyar) = beer
*Gloss: "Three bottle beer"
Spanish: tres botellas de cerveza

*tres = three
*botellas = bottles
*de = of
*cerveza = beer
*Gloss: "Three bottles of beer"
Arabic: ثلاثة زجاجات بيرة (thalaatha zajaajaat biirah)

*ثلاثة (thalaatha) = three
*زجاجات (zajaajaat) = bottles
*بيرة (biirah) = beer
*Gloss: "Three bottles beer"
Ancient Greek: τρία βοττίλια οίνου (tría bottília oínou)

*τρία (tría) = three
*βοττίλια (bottília) = bottles
*οίνου (oínou) = of wine (note: Ancient Greek didn't have a specific word for "beer")
*Gloss: "Three bottles of wine"
Russian: три бутылки пива (tri butylki piva)

*три (tri) = three
*бутылки (butylki) = bottles
*пива (piva) = beer
*Gloss: "Three bottles beer"
Turkish: üç şişe bira

*üç = three
*şişe = bottle
*bira = beer
*Gloss: "Three bottle beer"
Indonesian: tiga botol bir

*tiga = three
*botol = bottle
*bir = beer
*Gloss: "Three bottle beer"
German: drei Flaschen Bier

*drei = three
*Flaschen = bottles
*Bier = beer
*Gloss: "Three bottles beer"
Swahili: chupa tatu za bia

*chupa = bottles
*tatu = three
*za = of
*bia = beer
*Gloss: "Bottles three of beer"
This comparison shows a variety of structures, with some languages like Spanish, Ancient Greek, and Swahili using a preposition or equivalent ("of") to link the number and type of container to the content (beer), while others like Mandarin, Hindi, Arabic, Russian, Turkish, Indonesian, and German typically follow a more direct "number container content" format without a linking word.

User
The word order is really remarkably similar, given that these languages have very divergent word orders! Could you extend by looking also at Japanese, Telugu, Hebrew, Ewe, Esperanto, Maori and Malagasy?
GPT
Absolutely, I'll extend the translation of "three bottles of beer" to include Japanese, Telugu, Hebrew, Ewe, Esperanto, Maori, and Malagasy, with a focus on word order and linking morphemes.

Japanese: ビール三本 (Bīru san-bon)

*ビール (Bīru) = beer
*三 (san) = three
*本 (bon) = counter for long, cylindrical things (like bottles)
*Gloss: "Beer three (bottles)"
Telugu: మూడు బీరు సీసాలు (Mūḍu bīru sīsālu)

*మూడు (Mūḍu) = three
*బీరు (bīru) = beer
*సీసాలు (sīsālu) = bottles
*Gloss: "Three beer bottles"
Hebrew: שלוש בקבוקי בירה (Shalosh bakbukei birah)

*שלוש (Shalosh) = three
*בקבוקי (bakbukei) = bottles (of)
*בירה (birah) = beer
*Gloss: "Three bottles of beer"
Ewe: ɖekɔwo meɖeka me (Ɖekɔwo meɖeka me)

*ɖekɔwo = bottles
*meɖeka = three
*me = of
*Gloss: "Bottles three of"
Esperanto: tri boteloj da biero

*tri = three
*boteloj = bottles
*da = of (partitive article)
*biero = beer
*Gloss: "Three bottles of beer"
Maori: e toru ngā pounamu pia

*e toru = three
*ngā = (definite article, plural)
*pounamu = bottles
*pia = beer
*Gloss: "Three the bottles beer"
Malagasy: tavoahangy telo an'ny labiera

*tavoahangy = bottles
*telo = three
*an'ny = of (belonging to)
*labiera = beer
*Gloss: "Bottles three of beer"
In these additional languages, we still observe a mix of structures. Japanese and Telugu tend to place the object (beer) before the quantity and container, which is different from most of the previously mentioned languages. Hebrew and Esperanto follow a structure similar to Spanish or Swahili, using a word equivalent to "of" to link the bottles and beer. Ewe, Maori, and Malagasy also use a linking word, but place the numeral after the noun, unlike most Indo-European languages. This further illustrates the diverse syntactic structures used across different language families.

User
Japanese also allows sanbon no biiru, doesn't it?
GPT
Yes, you're correct. In Japanese, "three bottles of beer" can also be expressed as "三本のビール" (san-bon no bīru). In this phrase:

三本 (san-bon) means "three bottles," with 三 (san) meaning "three" and 本 (bon) being the counter for long, cylindrical objects, including bottles.
の (no) is a possessive particle, often used similarly to the English preposition "of."
ビール (bīru) is "beer."
So, "三本のビール" (san-bon no bīru) translates directly to "three bottles of beer," with a structure that closely mirrors the English phrase. This variation demonstrates the flexibility in Japanese regarding the placement of the quantity and the object.

User
So would you agree that most languages have the word order three - bottle - beer, and if there's a linking morpheme, it's typically between bottle and beer, not between three and bottle?
GPT
Yes, based on the translations and analysis provided, it appears that in most of these diverse languages, the typical word order for the phrase "three bottles of beer" is indeed "three - bottle - beer." Additionally, when a linking morpheme or preposition is used, it usually appears between "bottle" and "beer," rather than between "three" and "bottle."

In languages where a linking morpheme is employed, it tends to function like the English "of" to denote possession or association, connecting the quantity and type of container (bottle) with its content (beer). This is observed in languages like Spanish (tres botellas de cerveza), Hebrew (שלוש בקבוקי בירה), and Esperanto (tri boteloj da biero), among others.

On the other hand, in many languages, especially those with a tendency towards agglutination or no strict requirement for such linking words (like Mandarin, Hindi, Russian, and Japanese), the phrase follows a direct "three - bottle - beer" order without a linking morpheme. This structure reflects a more straightforward concatenation of the numerical quantity, the measure or container word, and the noun representing the content.

This analysis underscores the fascinating variety in linguistic structures across different language families, while also revealing common patterns in how languages handle quantification and the relationship between containers and their contents.

User
My problem is that I allow numerals in compounds in my conlang. So "March" is "three month" (like in Japanese), but it means that something like "a three month holiday" becomes quite ambiguous.
GPT
Your concern about ambiguity in your conlang, especially with numerals in compounds, is a valid and interesting linguistic challenge. In the case of "March" being "three month" and the potential ambiguity in a phrase like "a three month holiday," you're encountering an issue common in language design: how to balance brevity and clarity.

Here are a few strategies you might consider to address this:

Contextual Clues: Rely on the surrounding context to disambiguate. This is common in natural languages, where the meaning of a word or phrase is often clear from the situation or surrounding words. However, this can sometimes lead to confusion if the context isn't clear.

Modifiers for Compounding: Introduce a specific modifier or marker that differentiates when a numeral is part of a compound versus when it's quantifying a noun. For example, a slight alteration in pronunciation, a prefix, or a suffix could indicate that "three" in "three month" is a compound (signifying "March") rather than a quantity.

Structural Rules: Implement structural rules in your conlang for how compounds are formed, especially with numerals. For example, you could establish a rule that numerals at the beginning of a compound have a different function than numerals elsewhere in a phrase.

Lexical Distinctions: Create different words or forms for numbers when they are used in compounds versus when they are used for quantification. This can add complexity to the language but also provides clear differentiation.

Syntax-Based Disambiguation: Use word order or sentence structure to distinguish between a compound and a quantity description. For example, in your conlang, the position of the numeral in a sentence or phrase could determine its role.

Contextual Particles or Markers: Introduce particles or markers that are used to indicate the role of a numeral in a sentence, similar to how articles, prepositions, and case markers are used in natural languages.

Each of these strategies has its own advantages and trade-offs in terms of linguistic complexity, ease of use, and clarity. The choice depends on how you want your conlang to feel and function – whether you prefer it to be more straightforward or more nuanced and complex.

User
How would you say "a three-month holiday" in Japanese?
GPT
In Japanese, "a three-month holiday" would be expressed as "三ヶ月の休暇" (san-kagetsu no kyūka).

Breaking it down:

三 (san) means "three."
ヶ月 (kagetsu) is a counter for months. The "ヶ" (ka) is a special counter used for months, and when combined with "月" (getsu), which means "month," it denotes the number of months.
の (no) is a possessive particle, functioning similarly to the English preposition "of."
休暇 (kyūka) means "holiday" or "vacation."
So, "三ヶ月の休暇" translates directly to "a three-month holiday" or "a holiday of three months" in English.

User
Yes, so the "ヶ" does quite a lot of work here, because the meaning is very different from 三月の休暇!
GPT
Absolutely, you've highlighted a crucial aspect of Japanese language structure. The "ヶ" (ka) in "三ヶ月" (san-kagetsu) significantly changes the meaning compared to "三月" (san-gatsu).

"三ヶ月の休暇" (san-kagetsu no kyūka) means "a three-month holiday." Here, "三ヶ月" (san-kagetsu) refers to a duration of three months, with "ヶ月" (kagetsu) serving as a counter for months.
On the other hand, "三月の休暇" (san-gatsu no kyūka) means "a holiday in March." In this case, "三月" (san-gatsu) refers to the month of March (the third month of the year).
The "ヶ" (ka) in "三ヶ月" is a key element that transforms the numeral "三" (three) into a duration, rather than a reference to the ordinal position of a month. This distinction is a great example of how small particles and counters in Japanese can significantly alter the meaning of phrases.

== More thinking ==

I guess a partitive article should fix it. The examples above show that
: three bottle PART beer
would be an extremely widespread way to express this, and we shouldn't do weirdness without very good reason.

So a three month holiday must be
: three month PART holiday
: ''or'' holiday ADJ three PART month
: ''or perhaps even'' three PART month PART holiday.
In all of these, the PART signals that the ''three'' must be read as a number, because ''March PART holiday'' makes no sense.

We should also use the partitive without counters, e.g.:
: three PART month
: three PART beer

2023-11-23T17:13:13Z

Thomas:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Particles
|-
! !! -a !! -i !! -u
|-
! j-
| [[OR]] || ji || [[2P]]
|-
! t-
| [[3P]] || [[PAST]] || [[DAT]]
|-
! s-
| [[NOM]] || [[REFL]] || su
|-
! h-
| [[PEOR]] || hi || [[VOC]]
|-
! l-
| [[PROP]] || [[PLUR]] || lu
|-
! m-
| [[PRES]] || [[1P]] || [[ACC]]
|-
! p-
| [[ABL]] || [[INS]] || pu
|-
! v-
| [[AND]] || [[POLITE]] || [[IRR]]
|-
! n-
| [[GEN]] || [[LOC]] || [[NEG]]
|-
! k-
| ka || [[REL]] || [[QUEST]]
|-
! c-
| [[ALSO]] || (ci) || cu
|}

''ci'' is in brackets because it's probably not wise to use ''ti'', ''ki'' and ''ci'' at the same time.

Sorted by function:
* Cases: [[NOM]], [[ACC]], [[DAT]], [[ABL]], [[GEN]], [[INS]], [[VOC]], [[REL]].
* Tense/aspect: [[PRES]], [[PAST]], [[IRR]].
* Personal: [[1P]], [[2P]], [[3P]], [[REFL]].
* Conjunctions: [[AND]], [[OR]].
* Politeness: [[POLITE]], [[PEOR]].
* Other: [[QUEST]], [[NEG]], [[PROP]], [[PLUR]], [[ALSO]].

Ideas:
* Tense/aspect: [[FUT]], [[NOMIC]].
* Epistemic: [[PROB]], [[DEF]], [[REP]], [[SUPPOS]].
* Other: [[EACHOTHER]].

Table of particles

2023-11-23T17:12:56Z

Thomas:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Particles
|-
! !! -a !! -i !! -u
|-
! j-
| [[OR]] || ji || [[2P]]
|-
! t-
| [[3P]] || [[PAST]] || [[DAT]]
|-
! s-
| [[NOM]] || [[REFL]] || su
|-
! h-
| [[PEOR]] || hi || [[VOC]]
|-
! l-
| [[PROP]] || [[PLUR]] || lu
|-
! m-
| [[PRES]] || [[1P]] || [[ACC]]
|-
! p-
| [[ABL]] || [[INS]] || pu
|-
! v-
| [[AND]] || [[POLITE]] || [[IRR]]
|-
! n-
| [[GEN]] || [[LOC]] || [[NEG]]
|-
! k-
| ka || [[REL]] || [[QUEST]]
|-
! c-
| [[ALSO]] || (ci) || cu
|}

''ci'' is in brackets because it's probably not wise to use ''ti'', ''ki'' and ''ci'' at the same time.

Sorted by function:
* Cases: [[NOM]], [[ACC]], [[DAT]], [[ABL]], [[GEN]], [[INS]], [[VOC]], [[REL]].
* Tense/aspect: [[PRES]], [[PAST]], [[IRR]].
* Personal: [[1P]], [[2P]], [[3P]], [[REFL]].
* Conjunctions: [[AND]], [[OR]].
* Politeness: [[POLITE]], [[PEOR]].
* Other: [[QUEST]], [[NEG]], [[PROP]], [[PLUR]], [[ALSO]].

Ideas:
* Tense/aspect: [[FUT]], [[NOMIC]].
* Epistemic: [[PROB]], [[DEF]], [[REP]], [SUPPOS]].
* Other: [[EACHOTHER]].

Table of particles

2023-11-23T17:04:24Z

Thomas:

Table of particles

2023-11-23T17:04:03Z

Thomas:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Particles
|-
! !! -a !! -i !! -u
|-
! j-
| [[OR]] || ji || [[2P]]
|-
! t-
| [[3P]] || [[PAST]] || [[DAT]]
|-
! s-
| [[NOM]] || [[REFL]] || su
|-
! h-
| [[PEOR]] || hi || [[VOC]]
|-
! l-
| [[PROP]] || [[PLUR]] || lu
|-
! m-
| [[PRES]] || [[1P]] || [[ACC]]
|-
! p-
| [[ABL]] || [[INS]] || pu
|-
! v-
| [[AND]] || [[POLITE]] || [[IRR]]
|-
! n-
| [[GEN]] || [[LOC]] || [[NEG]]
|-
! k-
| ka || [[REL]] || [[QUEST]]
|-
! c-
| [[ALSO]] || (ci) || cu
|}

''ci'' is in brackets because it's probably not wise to use ''ti'', ''ki'' and ''ci'' at the same time.

Sorted by function:
* Cases: [[NOM]], [[ACC], [[DAT]], [[ABL]], [[GEN]], [[INS], [[VOC]], [[REL]].
* Tense/aspect: [[PRES]], [[PAST]], [[IRR]].
* Personal: [[1P]], [[2P]], [[3P]], [[REFL]].
* Conjunctions: [[AND]], [[OR]].
* Politeness: [[POLITE]], [[PEOR]].
* Other: [[QUEST]], [[NEG]], [[PROP]], [[PLUR]], [[ALSO]].

Table of particles

2023-11-23T16:59:13Z

Thomas:

Table of particles

2023-11-23T16:56:18Z

Thomas: